![]() ![]() Antibiotic-resistant bacteria also express high levels of β-lactamases ( Shapiro, 2016 Cheng et al., 2018). coli has been identified as a high-expressing strain of alkaline phosphatase (ALP) involved in dephosphorylation ( Kantrowitz, 2011). NTR converts aromatic nitro groups to amines using NADH as a cofactor ( Roldan et al., 2008). For instance, nitroreductase (NTR), a family of flavin-containing enzymes, is widely expressed in Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. ![]() It is also known that bacterial resistance is associated with structural changes in bacterial enzymes ( Egorov et al., 2018). On the other hand, various bacterial enzymes are involved in the biosynthesis of bacterial cell walls, nucleic acids, and metabolites and are closely related to the bacterial infection process ( Bouhss et al., 2008 Egorov et al., 2018). However, Gram-negative bacteria have a thin layer of peptidoglycan (PG) wall and an outer membrane consisting of lipoproteins, such as phospholipids and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) ( Hanassi et al., 2012). Gram-positive bacteria are characterized by the presence of thicker, more cross-linked peptidoglycans and no outer membrane ( Scott and Barnett, 2006). Pathogenic bacteria are classified into two categories according to their cell surface composition: Gram-positive and Gram-negative ( Scott and Barnett, 2006 Hanassi et al., 2012 Mai-Prochnow et al., 2016). Thus, the identification of bacterial strains is critical for the treatment of bacterial infections and the development of antibiotics. Moreover, multidrug-resistant pathogenic bacteria are emerging as a serious problem worldwide due to the abuse of antibiotics ( Jeong et al., 2016). For example, the World Health Organization (WHO) reported some of the pathogens that may cause the greatest harm to human health ( Hu et al., 2018). However, some bacteria can cause serious infections and even death. Most bacteria are harmless to humans and play an important role in the digestive tract, vitamin production, and destruction of diseased cells ( Zhang et al., 2015). Prospects for future research are outlined by presenting the importance of effective in vitro and in vivo detection of bacteria and development of antimicrobial agents.īacteria are small single cell organisms and millions of bacteria exist in the human body. In addition, this review demonstrates the validation of these fluorescent probes using a variety of biological models such as gram-negative and -positive bacteria, antibiotic-resistant bacteria, infected cancer cells, tumor-bearing, and infected mice. Some examples of other miscellaneous detections in bacteria have also been described. These include theranostic probes that allow simultaneous bacterial detection and photodynamic antimicrobial effects. Detection strategies are described, including specific interactions with bacterial cell wall components, bacterial and intracellular enzyme reactions, and peptidoglycan synthesis reactions. In this review, we outline recent advances in the development of fluorescence-based dyes capable of detecting bacteria. These probes can detect bacteria with “off-on” fluorescence change, which enables the real-time imaging and quantitative analysis of bacteria in vitro and in vivo. Many organic fluorescent probes have been developed to overcome the limitations of conventional detection methods. Identification of bacterial strains is critical for the theranostics of bacterial infections and the development of antibiotics. Department of Chemistry, Sookmyung Women’s University, Seoul, South Korea.Shin A Yoon, Sun Young Park, Yujin Cha, Lavanya Gopala and Min Hee Lee* ![]()
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